There are other organizations whose activities have a bearing on communication developments across the globe. A few of them are given below:
• Council of Europe
• European Economic Community (EEC)
• The Organization of American States (OAS)
• The Organization of African Units (AOU)
• The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
• The Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)
A few operational agencies and professional organizations, such as:
• The European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT)
• The Arab Telecommunications Union (ATU)
• The Pan African Telecommunications Union (PATU)
• European Broadcasting Union (EBU): Encourage professionalism in broadcasting in the region.
• Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union (ABU): Encourage professionalism in broadcasting in the region
Saturday, May 14, 2011
International Practice on Media Exchange and Regulation
Numerous international bodies/phenomena govern aspects of media exchange and regulation at the global level. A few of them have been discussed below:
1. International Telecommunication Union
2. INTELSAT
3. World Trade Organisation
4. World Intellectual Property Organisation
5. The Internet
International Telecommunication Union:
The international telecommunication Union (ITU) was formed in 1932, growing out of the International Telegraph Union, which was itself formed in 1865. In 1947 the ITU became a specialized agency of the United Nations, with its headquarters in Geneva. Its membership is made up exclusively of nation-states and includes most of the members of the United Nations, but non-state entities such as private telecommunication companies can become members of the individual sectors.
In various forms it has played a dominant role in international cooperation and standard setting throughout the history of telecommunications.
Regulations:
It now functions as the ultimate manager of the world’s telecommunication resources in:
• Allocating radio frequencies to avoid interference
• Coordinating efforts to eliminate interference
• Fostering the creation of telecommunication in newly independent or developing countries
• Promoting safety measures
• Undertaking studies in the area of telecommunications
• Allotting Communication satellite orbital positions to its member states
INTELSAT:
International Telecommunications Satellite Organisation (INTELSAT) was established by the United States and various European countries in 1964 and headquartered in Washington, D.C. Initially, like the ITU, INTELSAT was primarily an organization directed by its member nation-states, although state-designated telecommunication entities also were part of a multilevel governance scheme. Operated much as a commercial cooperative, with 143 current member countries, INTELSAT was and is a wholesaler of satellite communications and links the world’s telecommunications networks together. It has 213 investing entities and owns and operates a global satellite system that delivers:
• Public switched networks
• Private and business networks
• Internet services
• Video services
to more than 200 countries.
World Trade Organisation:
The World Trade Organisation (WTO) is a Geneva-based international organization of more than 130 nation-states dealing with the global rules of trade between nations. It presently has an impact on:
• Telecommunications policy and intellectual property rights and may have greater impact in the future as telecommunications, satellite technology, and computer technology converge
In February 1997, 69 WTO member governments, including the United States and its major trading partners, agreed to wide-ranging liberalization measures in the area of telecommunications services. These members have agreed:
• Not to engage in anticompetitive behaviour
• To open their telecommunication systems up to foreign investment and control.
• Members have made commitments toward increasing international competition in voice telephony, data transmission, facsimile services, fixed and mobile satellite services, paging, and personal communication services
• Also administrates intellectual property provisions covering patents, trademarks, and copyrights.
World Intellectual Property Organisation:
The World Intellectdual Property Organisation (WIPO) is an intergovernmental organization headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. It is one of the 16 specialized agencies of the United Nations system of organizations. WIPO is responsible for the:
• Promotion of the protection of intellectual property throughout the world through cooperation among nation-states
• Administration of various multilateral treaties dealing with the legal and administrative aspects of intellectual property
The intellectual property concerns of the WIPO fall into two categories:
1. Industrial property, chiefly in inventions, trademarks, industrial designs, and appellations of origin
2. Copyright, chiefly in literacy, musical, artistic, photographic, and audiovisual works
In Copyright, WIPO recognizes the Bern Convention which guarantees protection in foreign countries. A member country must already have copyright protection within its own legal system that provides protection without a requirement for copyright registration and without a requirement for a notice of copyright to appear on the work. The Bern Convention exclusively grants economic rights:
• The author has exclusive right to translate, reproduce, perform, or adapt protected works and may bring suit in any member country for actual damages and other remedies.
In 1996, WIPO recognizing the dangers of new global information system, passed two new treaties:
1. Copyright Treaty: Strengthens the Bern Convention by including protection for cyberspace commerce. The provisions included the protection for computer programs and mandated that nation-states develop legal remedies to preserve the integrity of “rights management information”.
2. The Performances and Phonograms Treaty: Deals with the protection for sound recordings in a digital environment.
The treaties specify the limits of liability for information service providers and the telephone companies that serve as carrier for the protected works.
The treaties also deal with the limits of the fair use exception to copyright violation for educational institutions and libraries.
The Internet and Global Communication Law:
The increasingly widespread use of internet, a borderless technology with no international boundaries, has called into question traditional approaches to communication law and regulation in different countries.
The United States of America is endorsing the principle of self-regulation for the internet. Grounded in a constitutional system that has produced broad principles of freedom of speech, the United States has proposed that the content of the Internet be subjected to the same minimal controls that are applied to traditional media such as newspapers and magazines in the U.S. and the Internet be allowed to respond to free market demands.
In the wake of Reno Vs. ACLU in 1997, in which the U.S. Supreme Court struck down as unconstitutional the Communication Decency Act—the Child Online Protection Act (COPA, 1999) passed by the U.S. Congress, the Administration has apparently even relaxed attempts to police pornography on the Internet, instead supporting software filters as a way to protect children from indecent Internet content.
Existing laws aimed at child pornography can be enforced against U.S. violators who use the Internet as a medium. However, half of the sexually explicit material available over the Internet originates outside of the country and is thus exempt from the laws of the United States.
Other nations are not so sanguine about a relatively uncontrolled and unrestricted Internet that passes through national boundaries and expose citizen to ideas and images that their cultures reject.
Germany compelled CompServe Inc., an Internet service provider, to completely block 200 discussion groups to German websites in reaction to pro-Nazi messages (Knoll, 1996).
France has prosecuted a a website owner for uploading a book bearing secrets about a former President.
Singapore punishes both Internet users and providers who download and upload politically and morally objectionable material and imposes proxy servers, or “censoring computers” that keep its people from accessing outside web pages that are currently banned by the government.
China , in an attempt to protect its people from Western influences, built an Intranet that blocks Chinese people from the Internet, substituting for it a Chinese version, and plans touseproxy servers like those employed in Singapore.
India has the Information Technology Act which says (section 78) that the network service providers shall not be liable for the information or data put up by a third party.
Despites the best attempts of various countries to regulate the Internet, no coutnry’s method has been globally effective as:
• No control over the content emanating from other nations.
• Senders of the encrypted messages are difficult to be detected.
• Screening and filtering softwares are imprecise and at the same time overwhelmed by the vast amount of information traveling across Internet and the time required classifying and filtering.
• Network providers have neither the jurisdiction in most countries nor the physical capacity to actively and adequately censor the entire internet.
Countries can to some extent seek out and punish violators of communication laws within their own national boundaries, but an agreement that is binding in all parts of the world is absent.
*********
1. International Telecommunication Union
2. INTELSAT
3. World Trade Organisation
4. World Intellectual Property Organisation
5. The Internet
International Telecommunication Union:
The international telecommunication Union (ITU) was formed in 1932, growing out of the International Telegraph Union, which was itself formed in 1865. In 1947 the ITU became a specialized agency of the United Nations, with its headquarters in Geneva. Its membership is made up exclusively of nation-states and includes most of the members of the United Nations, but non-state entities such as private telecommunication companies can become members of the individual sectors.
In various forms it has played a dominant role in international cooperation and standard setting throughout the history of telecommunications.
Regulations:
It now functions as the ultimate manager of the world’s telecommunication resources in:
• Allocating radio frequencies to avoid interference
• Coordinating efforts to eliminate interference
• Fostering the creation of telecommunication in newly independent or developing countries
• Promoting safety measures
• Undertaking studies in the area of telecommunications
• Allotting Communication satellite orbital positions to its member states
INTELSAT:
International Telecommunications Satellite Organisation (INTELSAT) was established by the United States and various European countries in 1964 and headquartered in Washington, D.C. Initially, like the ITU, INTELSAT was primarily an organization directed by its member nation-states, although state-designated telecommunication entities also were part of a multilevel governance scheme. Operated much as a commercial cooperative, with 143 current member countries, INTELSAT was and is a wholesaler of satellite communications and links the world’s telecommunications networks together. It has 213 investing entities and owns and operates a global satellite system that delivers:
• Public switched networks
• Private and business networks
• Internet services
• Video services
to more than 200 countries.
World Trade Organisation:
The World Trade Organisation (WTO) is a Geneva-based international organization of more than 130 nation-states dealing with the global rules of trade between nations. It presently has an impact on:
• Telecommunications policy and intellectual property rights and may have greater impact in the future as telecommunications, satellite technology, and computer technology converge
In February 1997, 69 WTO member governments, including the United States and its major trading partners, agreed to wide-ranging liberalization measures in the area of telecommunications services. These members have agreed:
• Not to engage in anticompetitive behaviour
• To open their telecommunication systems up to foreign investment and control.
• Members have made commitments toward increasing international competition in voice telephony, data transmission, facsimile services, fixed and mobile satellite services, paging, and personal communication services
• Also administrates intellectual property provisions covering patents, trademarks, and copyrights.
World Intellectual Property Organisation:
The World Intellectdual Property Organisation (WIPO) is an intergovernmental organization headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. It is one of the 16 specialized agencies of the United Nations system of organizations. WIPO is responsible for the:
• Promotion of the protection of intellectual property throughout the world through cooperation among nation-states
• Administration of various multilateral treaties dealing with the legal and administrative aspects of intellectual property
The intellectual property concerns of the WIPO fall into two categories:
1. Industrial property, chiefly in inventions, trademarks, industrial designs, and appellations of origin
2. Copyright, chiefly in literacy, musical, artistic, photographic, and audiovisual works
In Copyright, WIPO recognizes the Bern Convention which guarantees protection in foreign countries. A member country must already have copyright protection within its own legal system that provides protection without a requirement for copyright registration and without a requirement for a notice of copyright to appear on the work. The Bern Convention exclusively grants economic rights:
• The author has exclusive right to translate, reproduce, perform, or adapt protected works and may bring suit in any member country for actual damages and other remedies.
In 1996, WIPO recognizing the dangers of new global information system, passed two new treaties:
1. Copyright Treaty: Strengthens the Bern Convention by including protection for cyberspace commerce. The provisions included the protection for computer programs and mandated that nation-states develop legal remedies to preserve the integrity of “rights management information”.
2. The Performances and Phonograms Treaty: Deals with the protection for sound recordings in a digital environment.
The treaties specify the limits of liability for information service providers and the telephone companies that serve as carrier for the protected works.
The treaties also deal with the limits of the fair use exception to copyright violation for educational institutions and libraries.
The Internet and Global Communication Law:
The increasingly widespread use of internet, a borderless technology with no international boundaries, has called into question traditional approaches to communication law and regulation in different countries.
The United States of America is endorsing the principle of self-regulation for the internet. Grounded in a constitutional system that has produced broad principles of freedom of speech, the United States has proposed that the content of the Internet be subjected to the same minimal controls that are applied to traditional media such as newspapers and magazines in the U.S. and the Internet be allowed to respond to free market demands.
In the wake of Reno Vs. ACLU in 1997, in which the U.S. Supreme Court struck down as unconstitutional the Communication Decency Act—the Child Online Protection Act (COPA, 1999) passed by the U.S. Congress, the Administration has apparently even relaxed attempts to police pornography on the Internet, instead supporting software filters as a way to protect children from indecent Internet content.
Existing laws aimed at child pornography can be enforced against U.S. violators who use the Internet as a medium. However, half of the sexually explicit material available over the Internet originates outside of the country and is thus exempt from the laws of the United States.
Other nations are not so sanguine about a relatively uncontrolled and unrestricted Internet that passes through national boundaries and expose citizen to ideas and images that their cultures reject.
Germany compelled CompServe Inc., an Internet service provider, to completely block 200 discussion groups to German websites in reaction to pro-Nazi messages (Knoll, 1996).
France has prosecuted a a website owner for uploading a book bearing secrets about a former President.
Singapore punishes both Internet users and providers who download and upload politically and morally objectionable material and imposes proxy servers, or “censoring computers” that keep its people from accessing outside web pages that are currently banned by the government.
China , in an attempt to protect its people from Western influences, built an Intranet that blocks Chinese people from the Internet, substituting for it a Chinese version, and plans touseproxy servers like those employed in Singapore.
India has the Information Technology Act which says (section 78) that the network service providers shall not be liable for the information or data put up by a third party.
Despites the best attempts of various countries to regulate the Internet, no coutnry’s method has been globally effective as:
• No control over the content emanating from other nations.
• Senders of the encrypted messages are difficult to be detected.
• Screening and filtering softwares are imprecise and at the same time overwhelmed by the vast amount of information traveling across Internet and the time required classifying and filtering.
• Network providers have neither the jurisdiction in most countries nor the physical capacity to actively and adequately censor the entire internet.
Countries can to some extent seek out and punish violators of communication laws within their own national boundaries, but an agreement that is binding in all parts of the world is absent.
*********
Sunday, November 21, 2010
Interview Method of Data Collection
Definition: Interview is verbal questioning. In research, Lindzey Gardner has defined interview as “a two-person conversation, initiated by the interviewer for the specific purpose of obtaining research-relevant information and focused by him on the content specified by the research objectives of description and explanation”.
Functions of interview:
Two major functions of the interview techniques are described as under:
• Description
• Exploration
Description: The information received from the respondent provides insight into the nature of social reality. Since the interviewer spends some time with the respondents, he can understand their feelings and attitudes more clearly, and seek additional information wherever necessary and make information meaningful for him.
Exploration: Interview provides insight into unexplored dimensions of the problem.
Characteristics of interview: Black and Champion have pointed out the following characteristics of an interview:
• Personal communication.
• Equal status: The status of the interviewer and the interviewee is equal.
• Instant response.
• Temporary relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee.
• Considerable flexibility in the format of the interview.
Types of interviews:
Unstructured: There are no specifications in the wording of the questions or the order of the questions. The interviewer forms questions as and when required. The structure of the interview is flexible.
Structured: Is based on the structured interview-guide which is little different from the questionnaire. It is a set of specific points and definite questions prepared by the interviewer.
Standardized: In standardized interviews, answer to each question is standardized as it is determined by a set of response categories given for this purpose. The respondents are expected to choose one of the given options as the answer.
Unstandardized: Is one in which the responses are left open to the respondent. This is used mainly in qualitative research.
Individual: Where the interviewer interviews only one respondent at a time.
Group interview: More than one respondent are interviewed simultaneously. The group can be small, say, of two individual (e.g., husband and wife, or two co-workers in a factory) or large, say, of 10 to 20 persons (say students in a class).
Self-administered: The respondent is supplied a list of questions along with instructions for writing answers in the appropriate place on the interview form.
Other-administered: The interviewer himself writes answers to questions on the response sheet.
Unique: Is one which the interviewer collects entire information in one interview.
Panel interviews: The interviewer collects information from the same group of respondents two or more times at regular intervals. If different respondents are involved in various stages for asking the same question, it is called Trend Study.
Soft interview: Here the interviewer guides the respondents without putting any pressure on them.
Hard interview: Here, the interview resembles a police interrogation. The interviewer questions the validity and completeness of the answers obtained, often warning the respondents not to lie and forcing them to give an answer when they hesitate.
Personal interviews: There is face to face contact between the interviewer and the interviewee.
Non-personal interviews: No face-to-face contact, but the information is collected through telephone, computer or some other medium.
Conditions for a successful interview: Collecting data through the interview technique may be easy, yet its adequacy, reliability and validity pose important problems. Interviewers differ in interest and skill; respondents differ in ability and motivation. Gardner has pointed out three conditions for successful interviewing:
• Accessibility
• Understanding
• Motivations
Accessibility: For giving information to the interviewer, the respondent must have access to the information.
Understanding: The respondent sometimes is not able to understand what is expected of him. Unless he understands the significance of the research, the concepts and terms used, the nature of answers which the interviewer expects from him, his answers might be out-of-track.
Motivation: The respondent needs to be motivated not only for giving information but also giving accurate information. The fear of consequences, being suspicious about the interviewer, and dislike of the subject are some of the factors which decrease the level of respondents’ motivation. The interviewer, therefore, has to try to reduce the effect of these factors.
Functions of interview:
Two major functions of the interview techniques are described as under:
• Description
• Exploration
Description: The information received from the respondent provides insight into the nature of social reality. Since the interviewer spends some time with the respondents, he can understand their feelings and attitudes more clearly, and seek additional information wherever necessary and make information meaningful for him.
Exploration: Interview provides insight into unexplored dimensions of the problem.
Characteristics of interview: Black and Champion have pointed out the following characteristics of an interview:
• Personal communication.
• Equal status: The status of the interviewer and the interviewee is equal.
• Instant response.
• Temporary relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee.
• Considerable flexibility in the format of the interview.
Types of interviews:
Unstructured: There are no specifications in the wording of the questions or the order of the questions. The interviewer forms questions as and when required. The structure of the interview is flexible.
Structured: Is based on the structured interview-guide which is little different from the questionnaire. It is a set of specific points and definite questions prepared by the interviewer.
Standardized: In standardized interviews, answer to each question is standardized as it is determined by a set of response categories given for this purpose. The respondents are expected to choose one of the given options as the answer.
Unstandardized: Is one in which the responses are left open to the respondent. This is used mainly in qualitative research.
Individual: Where the interviewer interviews only one respondent at a time.
Group interview: More than one respondent are interviewed simultaneously. The group can be small, say, of two individual (e.g., husband and wife, or two co-workers in a factory) or large, say, of 10 to 20 persons (say students in a class).
Self-administered: The respondent is supplied a list of questions along with instructions for writing answers in the appropriate place on the interview form.
Other-administered: The interviewer himself writes answers to questions on the response sheet.
Unique: Is one which the interviewer collects entire information in one interview.
Panel interviews: The interviewer collects information from the same group of respondents two or more times at regular intervals. If different respondents are involved in various stages for asking the same question, it is called Trend Study.
Soft interview: Here the interviewer guides the respondents without putting any pressure on them.
Hard interview: Here, the interview resembles a police interrogation. The interviewer questions the validity and completeness of the answers obtained, often warning the respondents not to lie and forcing them to give an answer when they hesitate.
Personal interviews: There is face to face contact between the interviewer and the interviewee.
Non-personal interviews: No face-to-face contact, but the information is collected through telephone, computer or some other medium.
Conditions for a successful interview: Collecting data through the interview technique may be easy, yet its adequacy, reliability and validity pose important problems. Interviewers differ in interest and skill; respondents differ in ability and motivation. Gardner has pointed out three conditions for successful interviewing:
• Accessibility
• Understanding
• Motivations
Accessibility: For giving information to the interviewer, the respondent must have access to the information.
Understanding: The respondent sometimes is not able to understand what is expected of him. Unless he understands the significance of the research, the concepts and terms used, the nature of answers which the interviewer expects from him, his answers might be out-of-track.
Motivation: The respondent needs to be motivated not only for giving information but also giving accurate information. The fear of consequences, being suspicious about the interviewer, and dislike of the subject are some of the factors which decrease the level of respondents’ motivation. The interviewer, therefore, has to try to reduce the effect of these factors.
Research Process: Steps Involved
Horton and Hunt (1984:10) have pointed out eight steps in scientific research or scientific method of investigation:
1. Define/select the problem.
2. Review literature.
3. Formulate the hypotheses.
4. Plan the research design.
5. Collect the data.
6. Analyse the data.
7. Draw conclusion.
8. Replicate the study (when necessary).
1. Define/select the problem:
Probably the most common sources of research ideas are the experience of practical problems in the field. Many researchers are directly engaged in social, health, or human service program implementation and come up with their ideas based on what they see happening around them.
Another source of research ideas is the literature in one’s specific field. Many researchers get the ideas for research by reading the literature and thinking of ways to extend or refine previous research.
Finally, some researches simply think of their research topic on their own. The ideas they come up with are influenced by their background, culture, education, and experience.
Once a basic research idea has been chosen, the next step is to ensure that the topic has merit.
2. Review literature:
Researchers who conduct studies under the guidelines of scientific research never begin a research project without first consulting available literature to learn what has been done, how it was done, and what results were generated.
It not only allows the researchers to learn from previous research but also save time, effort, and money.
Before attempting any project, researchers should ask these questions:
• What type of research has been done in the area?
• What has been found in the previous studies?
• What suggestions do other researchers make for further study?
• What has not been investigated?
• What research methods were used in previous studies?
3. Formulate the hypotheses:
A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables. It is a tentative explanation of the research problem or a guess about the research outcome which can be empirically verified.
Ex: Non-working women enjoy lower social status than working women.
Here the variables are: woman’s work and social status.
Aggression is caused due to frustration.
4. Plan the Research Design:
Research design is the detailed strategy to conduct a research. It plans as to:
What is to be observed
How is to be observed
When/where is to be observed
Why is to be observed
How to record observations
How to analyze/interpret observations
How to generalize
William Zikmund has described research design as “a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information”.
5. Collect the data:
Data for research purposes can be divided into two types:
1. Primary
2. Secondary
Primary: The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character.
Secondary: The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.
Collection of primary data: Primary data can be collected either through experiment or survey.
If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.
In the case of survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
• By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes or respondents. This method is an expensive method and the information provided by this method is also very limited. This method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.
• Through personal interviews
• Through telephone interviews
• By mailing of questionnaires: Are a set of questions mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing the same.
• Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents.
• Depth interviews: Depth interviews are those interviews that are designed to discover underlying motives and desires and are often used in motivational research. Such interviews are held to explore needs, desires and feelings of respondents. In other words, they aim to elicit unconscious as also other types of material relating especially to personality dynamics and motivations.
• Content analysis: Content analysis consists of analyzing the contents of documentary materials such as books, magazines, newspapers and the contents of all other verbal materials which can be either spoken or printed.
Collection of secondary data: Secondary data can be either published data or unpublished data.
Published data can be collected from:
• Various publications of central, state and local govts.
• Various publications of foreign govt. and international bodies.
• Technical and trade journals.
• Books, magazines and newspapers.
• Reports and publications of various associations.
• Previous research reports.
• Public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information.
The sources of unpublished data may be:
• Diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies.
• Scholars, research workers, trade associations, labour bureaus and other public/private individuals and organizations.
6. Analyse the data:
In this stage, the researcher analyses the data, prepares tables, and interprets the facts.
After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into meaningful statement; includes data processing, data analysis, and data interpretation and presentation.
Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of manipulation) could be manual or electronic. It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding, computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
7. Draw conclusion:
Logical conclusions are drawn based on the analysis of data and suggestions for future research are given.
8. Replicate the study: The above research project is replicated in different places, if we want to generalise the findings of the research.
1. Define/select the problem.
2. Review literature.
3. Formulate the hypotheses.
4. Plan the research design.
5. Collect the data.
6. Analyse the data.
7. Draw conclusion.
8. Replicate the study (when necessary).
1. Define/select the problem:
Probably the most common sources of research ideas are the experience of practical problems in the field. Many researchers are directly engaged in social, health, or human service program implementation and come up with their ideas based on what they see happening around them.
Another source of research ideas is the literature in one’s specific field. Many researchers get the ideas for research by reading the literature and thinking of ways to extend or refine previous research.
Finally, some researches simply think of their research topic on their own. The ideas they come up with are influenced by their background, culture, education, and experience.
Once a basic research idea has been chosen, the next step is to ensure that the topic has merit.
2. Review literature:
Researchers who conduct studies under the guidelines of scientific research never begin a research project without first consulting available literature to learn what has been done, how it was done, and what results were generated.
It not only allows the researchers to learn from previous research but also save time, effort, and money.
Before attempting any project, researchers should ask these questions:
• What type of research has been done in the area?
• What has been found in the previous studies?
• What suggestions do other researchers make for further study?
• What has not been investigated?
• What research methods were used in previous studies?
3. Formulate the hypotheses:
A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables. It is a tentative explanation of the research problem or a guess about the research outcome which can be empirically verified.
Ex: Non-working women enjoy lower social status than working women.
Here the variables are: woman’s work and social status.
Aggression is caused due to frustration.
4. Plan the Research Design:
Research design is the detailed strategy to conduct a research. It plans as to:
What is to be observed
How is to be observed
When/where is to be observed
Why is to be observed
How to record observations
How to analyze/interpret observations
How to generalize
William Zikmund has described research design as “a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information”.
5. Collect the data:
Data for research purposes can be divided into two types:
1. Primary
2. Secondary
Primary: The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character.
Secondary: The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.
Collection of primary data: Primary data can be collected either through experiment or survey.
If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.
In the case of survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
• By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes or respondents. This method is an expensive method and the information provided by this method is also very limited. This method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.
• Through personal interviews
• Through telephone interviews
• By mailing of questionnaires: Are a set of questions mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing the same.
• Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents.
• Depth interviews: Depth interviews are those interviews that are designed to discover underlying motives and desires and are often used in motivational research. Such interviews are held to explore needs, desires and feelings of respondents. In other words, they aim to elicit unconscious as also other types of material relating especially to personality dynamics and motivations.
• Content analysis: Content analysis consists of analyzing the contents of documentary materials such as books, magazines, newspapers and the contents of all other verbal materials which can be either spoken or printed.
Collection of secondary data: Secondary data can be either published data or unpublished data.
Published data can be collected from:
• Various publications of central, state and local govts.
• Various publications of foreign govt. and international bodies.
• Technical and trade journals.
• Books, magazines and newspapers.
• Reports and publications of various associations.
• Previous research reports.
• Public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information.
The sources of unpublished data may be:
• Diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies.
• Scholars, research workers, trade associations, labour bureaus and other public/private individuals and organizations.
6. Analyse the data:
In this stage, the researcher analyses the data, prepares tables, and interprets the facts.
After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into meaningful statement; includes data processing, data analysis, and data interpretation and presentation.
Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of manipulation) could be manual or electronic. It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding, computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
7. Draw conclusion:
Logical conclusions are drawn based on the analysis of data and suggestions for future research are given.
8. Replicate the study: The above research project is replicated in different places, if we want to generalise the findings of the research.
Wednesday, September 29, 2010
Top 10 mass comm institutes of India
In 2007, the Outlook (a weekly magazine) and Cfore (a market research firm) have conducted a survey to rank the top 10 mass communication institute in India.The survey results show that the best mass communication colleges are spread over various cities in India.
To rank the colleges the Outlook - Cfore researchers asked the faculty and professionals to rank the institutes in a ten point scale against four parameters.
These four parameters that they used were- faculty, pedagogic systems, infrastructure and placements. They then multiplied the average rating by the weightage in order to rank the top ten mass communication institutes in India.
IIMC, New Delhi
JNU new campus, Aruna Asif Ali Marg, New Delhi
Phone No - 91-011-26109268/60940/60
Email: pbapaiah@yahoo.com
Courses Offered: Post-graduate Diploma in Journalism (English and Hindi), Radio & Television Journalism and Advertising & Public Relations.
Xavier Institute of Communication, Mumbai
Mumbai, Maharashtra- 400 001
Phone No - (91-22) 262 1366/1639/2877
Website: www.xaviercomm.org
Courses Offered: Journalism & Mass Communication, Public Relations & Corporate Communications, Advertising & Marketing, Digital Animation and Television & Video Production.
International School of Business and Media (ISB&M)
Viman Nagar Campus
Survey No. 32/2, Ashok Plaza
Next to Weikfield Company
Nagar Road, Pune - 411014
Tel: 020-67212444 / 26633444
Website : www.isbm.edu.in
Courses offered : Undergraduate and Postgraduate programs in Media management, Advertisement, Public Relations, Event and Corporate Communication, TV & Radio production, Broadcast and Journalism
Symbiosis Institute of Mass Communication, Pune
Senapati Bapat Road, Pune 411 004
Phone No - 020 - 25652303 / 25660972
Website: www.simc.edu
Courses Offered: MBA in Communication Management (Advertising, Public Relations. Masters in Mass Communication (Journalism and T.V and Radio Production)
Asian College of Journalism, Chennai
Kasturi Centre, 124, Wallajah Road, Chennai - 600002
Phone No - 91-44-28418254/55, 28526227/49
Email: asian_media@vsnl.com
Courses Offered: The Masters Degree course includes Reporting, Writing, and Editing, Modern Issues in Journalism, History of the Media, Law of Media.
Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad
Shela, Ahmedabad (380058)
Phone No - 2717-237946-51
E-mail: admissions@mica.ac.in
Courses Offered: Executive Diploma Programme in Media Management.
Certificate Programme in Managing Integrated Media, Retail Communications, Crafting Creative Comm and Visual Merchandising. Post Graduate Programme in Communications Management and Entrepreneurship (PGP CME)
Film and Television Institute of India, Pune
Law College Road, Pune
Phone No - 91 - 020- 25431817 / 25433016 / 25430017
Email: tutorial_sec@ftiindia.com
Courses Offered: Direction, Acting, Cinematography, Art Direction and Production Design, Audiography, Animation and Computer Graphics, Editing, Feature Film Screenplay Writing.
AJ Kidwai Mass Comm Research Centre, Jamia, New Delhi
Jamia Millia Islamia, Jamia Nagar, New Delhi
Phone No - +91(11)26981717
Courses Offered: Ph.D and M.A. in Mass Communication. Post Graduate Diploma in Development Communication, Journalism and Broadcast System Maintenance.
Manorama School of Communication, Kottayam
PB No: 229, Kottayam, Kerala
Phone No - +91-481-2300851
Website: www.manoramajschool.com
Courses Offered: Post Graduate Diploma in Journalism.
Indian Institute of Journalism and New Media, Bangalore
HRBR Layout 3rd Block, Kalyananagar Post Bangalore 560 043
Pone No - 91-80-28437907 / 7903
E-mail: admin@iijnm.org
Courses Offered: The Post-graduate programmes offer courses on Reporting and Writing for Radio and Television, Ethical and Legal Issues in Journalism, Advanced Media Concentration and Business and Financial Reporting.
Times School of Journalism, New Delhi
Times Centre for Media Studies, Darya Ganj, New Delhi
Courses Offered: Post Graduate Diploma in Journalism
To rank the colleges the Outlook - Cfore researchers asked the faculty and professionals to rank the institutes in a ten point scale against four parameters.
These four parameters that they used were- faculty, pedagogic systems, infrastructure and placements. They then multiplied the average rating by the weightage in order to rank the top ten mass communication institutes in India.
IIMC, New Delhi
JNU new campus, Aruna Asif Ali Marg, New Delhi
Phone No - 91-011-26109268/60940/60
Email: pbapaiah@yahoo.com
Courses Offered: Post-graduate Diploma in Journalism (English and Hindi), Radio & Television Journalism and Advertising & Public Relations.
Xavier Institute of Communication, Mumbai
Mumbai, Maharashtra- 400 001
Phone No - (91-22) 262 1366/1639/2877
Website: www.xaviercomm.org
Courses Offered: Journalism & Mass Communication, Public Relations & Corporate Communications, Advertising & Marketing, Digital Animation and Television & Video Production.
International School of Business and Media (ISB&M)
Viman Nagar Campus
Survey No. 32/2, Ashok Plaza
Next to Weikfield Company
Nagar Road, Pune - 411014
Tel: 020-67212444 / 26633444
Website : www.isbm.edu.in
Courses offered : Undergraduate and Postgraduate programs in Media management, Advertisement, Public Relations, Event and Corporate Communication, TV & Radio production, Broadcast and Journalism
Symbiosis Institute of Mass Communication, Pune
Senapati Bapat Road, Pune 411 004
Phone No - 020 - 25652303 / 25660972
Website: www.simc.edu
Courses Offered: MBA in Communication Management (Advertising, Public Relations. Masters in Mass Communication (Journalism and T.V and Radio Production)
Asian College of Journalism, Chennai
Kasturi Centre, 124, Wallajah Road, Chennai - 600002
Phone No - 91-44-28418254/55, 28526227/49
Email: asian_media@vsnl.com
Courses Offered: The Masters Degree course includes Reporting, Writing, and Editing, Modern Issues in Journalism, History of the Media, Law of Media.
Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad
Shela, Ahmedabad (380058)
Phone No - 2717-237946-51
E-mail: admissions@mica.ac.in
Courses Offered: Executive Diploma Programme in Media Management.
Certificate Programme in Managing Integrated Media, Retail Communications, Crafting Creative Comm and Visual Merchandising. Post Graduate Programme in Communications Management and Entrepreneurship (PGP CME)
Film and Television Institute of India, Pune
Law College Road, Pune
Phone No - 91 - 020- 25431817 / 25433016 / 25430017
Email: tutorial_sec@ftiindia.com
Courses Offered: Direction, Acting, Cinematography, Art Direction and Production Design, Audiography, Animation and Computer Graphics, Editing, Feature Film Screenplay Writing.
AJ Kidwai Mass Comm Research Centre, Jamia, New Delhi
Jamia Millia Islamia, Jamia Nagar, New Delhi
Phone No - +91(11)26981717
Courses Offered: Ph.D and M.A. in Mass Communication. Post Graduate Diploma in Development Communication, Journalism and Broadcast System Maintenance.
Manorama School of Communication, Kottayam
PB No: 229, Kottayam, Kerala
Phone No - +91-481-2300851
Website: www.manoramajschool.com
Courses Offered: Post Graduate Diploma in Journalism.
Indian Institute of Journalism and New Media, Bangalore
HRBR Layout 3rd Block, Kalyananagar Post Bangalore 560 043
Pone No - 91-80-28437907 / 7903
E-mail: admin@iijnm.org
Courses Offered: The Post-graduate programmes offer courses on Reporting and Writing for Radio and Television, Ethical and Legal Issues in Journalism, Advanced Media Concentration and Business and Financial Reporting.
Times School of Journalism, New Delhi
Times Centre for Media Studies, Darya Ganj, New Delhi
Courses Offered: Post Graduate Diploma in Journalism
Top Mass Comm Institutes in the USA
Many famous people are graduates of communication colleges, such as actor Denzel Washington and Farside cartoonist Gary Larson. It's no wonder, given the versatility of the degree. Communication programs may offer areas of emphasis such as rhetoric, mass communication, organizational communication, political communication and health communication. The following list relies on information from College Crunch and the National Communication Association.
East Coast
The Pennsylvania State University has the largest accredited communications program in the country, Penn State's College of Communications, located in the Carnegie Building at the University Park campus, offers undergraduate degrees in advertising/public relations, film-video, media studies, journalism and telecommunications. The College is home to several communication-related research centers, which gives students an opportunity to put communication theory into practice. For more information, go to comm.psu.edu
The University of Pennsylvania's Annenberg School of Communication, located at 3620 Walnut Street at the University's main campus in Philadelphia, consistently ranks among the top programs in the country. Taking an interdisciplinary approach, students study a variety of topics including how communication creates and sustains organizations as well as the influence of communication in contemporary culture. Students also benefit from the expertise of some of the nation's foremost communication studies scholars. For more information, see asc.upenn.edu.
Syracuse University
With a particular focus on mass communication, The Newhouse School of Public Communication is housed in the S.I. Newhouse Communications Center on the University's main campus in Syracuse, New York. The School offers majors in advertising, broadcast journalism, magazine journalism, public relations, television/radio/film, photography, graphic arts, and newspaper journalism. The School is home to international experts on a wide variety of topics, including First Amendment rights and the role of television in popular culture. For more information, see newhouse.syr.edu.
Midwest
The University of Kansas Department of Communication Studies is home to one of the nation's top-ranked debate teams and offers a bachelor's degree in communication studies. The department is in Baily Hall on the main campus in Lawrence, Kansas. Students have the opportunity to study abroad as well as to participate in the honors program. For more information, see www2.ku.edu/~coms.
Bowling Green State University has more than 1,000 undergraduates studying in the School of Media and Communication, located in West Hall on the main campus in Bowling Green, Ohio. The School encourages students to complete internships as well as to participate in the Hong Kong Baptist University Exchange Program. Students can earn degrees in communication, interpersonal communication, telecommunications and journalism. For more information, see bgsu.edu/departments/smc/index.html
The Communication Studies program at the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor focuses on mass media and new media and the relationships between media and culture. The research areas of the faculty include, among other topics, media, power, and politics; media psychology; and media effects and sexuality. Beginning in 2010, the Department will be housed in a new facility on the North Quad. For more information: www.lsa.umich.edu/comm
The University of Minnesota's Department of Communication Studies has a dozen faculty members and about 600 undergraduate students. Located in Ford Hall on the main campus in Minneapolis, the Department offers a communication degree with a choice of three areas of interest: rhetorical studies, critical media studies and interpersonal communication. The program also offers students internship and sponsors the Communication Studies Association for interested student. For more information, see comm.umn.edu.
The University of Iowa's Department of Communication Studies is one of the largest degree programs on the university's main campus in Iowa City, Iowa. Concentrations include six clusters: communication and organizational life; communication and relationships; communication and health; media, culture, and technology; intercultural and international communication; and rhetoric and public advocacy. For more information, see uiowa.edu/commstud.
Southwest
The University of Texas-Austin's Department of Communication Studies has established itself as a preeminent center for research about communication studies. The faculty is impressive; five of them are ranked among the 100 most prolific researchers since the communication field developed in the early 20th century. For more information, see commstudies.utexas.edu.
The University of Arizona's Department of Communication offers students an in-depth look at the role of communication in everyday life. More than 1,000 undergraduates study under the guidance of an award-winning faculty. The Department offers many co-curricular activities including an honors program, study abroad and internships. For more information, see comm.arizona.edu.
Southeast
The University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill's communication studies degree is ranked No. 3 on College Crunch's top colleges for communication majors. The program offers four major concentrations, including rhetorical studies; interpersonal and organizational; media studies and production; and performance studies. UNC also offers an interdisciplinary minor in cinema studies. Part of the department's mission is to encourage an awareness of communication choices, behavior and technologies. For more information, go to comm.unc.edu.
For students interested in mass media, The Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Georgia's main campus in Athens, Georgia, offers seven majors, including advertising, broadcast news, newspapers, magazines, public relations, publication management and telecommunication arts. With more than a half dozen student organizations housed in the college, students are encouraged to pursue co-curricular activities that place an emphasis on putting theory into practice. For more information, see grady.uga.edu.
The Florida State University's School of Communication, located in the University Center complex on the main campus in Tallahassee, offers four majors and a minor in Hispanic marketing communication. Students can apply to participate in the "Communication in London" program, which runs the first six weeks of every summer term. Students may also pursue a professional communication major at the university's campus in Panama City. For more information, visit comm.cci.fsu.edu.
West Coast
The Annenberg School of Communication at the University of California Los Angeles hosts the School of Communication and the School of Journalism. More than 80 full-time faculty teach an expansive catalog of courses and are often called upon as media commentators about contemporary issues. The school offers degrees in communication, journalism and public relations. For more information, see annenberg.usc.edu.
Vanguard University of Southern California's Communication Department offers students two majors: communication studies and cinema/digital media. Vanguard's location in Costa Mesa, California, makes it an ideal spot for those interested in cinema/digital media studies. It is a member of the Los Angeles Film Studies Center, which allows students to gain academic credit while working as interns in the film industry. For more information, see vanguard.edu/communication.
East Coast
The Pennsylvania State University has the largest accredited communications program in the country, Penn State's College of Communications, located in the Carnegie Building at the University Park campus, offers undergraduate degrees in advertising/public relations, film-video, media studies, journalism and telecommunications. The College is home to several communication-related research centers, which gives students an opportunity to put communication theory into practice. For more information, go to comm.psu.edu
The University of Pennsylvania's Annenberg School of Communication, located at 3620 Walnut Street at the University's main campus in Philadelphia, consistently ranks among the top programs in the country. Taking an interdisciplinary approach, students study a variety of topics including how communication creates and sustains organizations as well as the influence of communication in contemporary culture. Students also benefit from the expertise of some of the nation's foremost communication studies scholars. For more information, see asc.upenn.edu.
Syracuse University
With a particular focus on mass communication, The Newhouse School of Public Communication is housed in the S.I. Newhouse Communications Center on the University's main campus in Syracuse, New York. The School offers majors in advertising, broadcast journalism, magazine journalism, public relations, television/radio/film, photography, graphic arts, and newspaper journalism. The School is home to international experts on a wide variety of topics, including First Amendment rights and the role of television in popular culture. For more information, see newhouse.syr.edu.
Midwest
The University of Kansas Department of Communication Studies is home to one of the nation's top-ranked debate teams and offers a bachelor's degree in communication studies. The department is in Baily Hall on the main campus in Lawrence, Kansas. Students have the opportunity to study abroad as well as to participate in the honors program. For more information, see www2.ku.edu/~coms.
Bowling Green State University has more than 1,000 undergraduates studying in the School of Media and Communication, located in West Hall on the main campus in Bowling Green, Ohio. The School encourages students to complete internships as well as to participate in the Hong Kong Baptist University Exchange Program. Students can earn degrees in communication, interpersonal communication, telecommunications and journalism. For more information, see bgsu.edu/departments/smc/index.html
The Communication Studies program at the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor focuses on mass media and new media and the relationships between media and culture. The research areas of the faculty include, among other topics, media, power, and politics; media psychology; and media effects and sexuality. Beginning in 2010, the Department will be housed in a new facility on the North Quad. For more information: www.lsa.umich.edu/comm
The University of Minnesota's Department of Communication Studies has a dozen faculty members and about 600 undergraduate students. Located in Ford Hall on the main campus in Minneapolis, the Department offers a communication degree with a choice of three areas of interest: rhetorical studies, critical media studies and interpersonal communication. The program also offers students internship and sponsors the Communication Studies Association for interested student. For more information, see comm.umn.edu.
The University of Iowa's Department of Communication Studies is one of the largest degree programs on the university's main campus in Iowa City, Iowa. Concentrations include six clusters: communication and organizational life; communication and relationships; communication and health; media, culture, and technology; intercultural and international communication; and rhetoric and public advocacy. For more information, see uiowa.edu/commstud.
Southwest
The University of Texas-Austin's Department of Communication Studies has established itself as a preeminent center for research about communication studies. The faculty is impressive; five of them are ranked among the 100 most prolific researchers since the communication field developed in the early 20th century. For more information, see commstudies.utexas.edu.
The University of Arizona's Department of Communication offers students an in-depth look at the role of communication in everyday life. More than 1,000 undergraduates study under the guidance of an award-winning faculty. The Department offers many co-curricular activities including an honors program, study abroad and internships. For more information, see comm.arizona.edu.
Southeast
The University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill's communication studies degree is ranked No. 3 on College Crunch's top colleges for communication majors. The program offers four major concentrations, including rhetorical studies; interpersonal and organizational; media studies and production; and performance studies. UNC also offers an interdisciplinary minor in cinema studies. Part of the department's mission is to encourage an awareness of communication choices, behavior and technologies. For more information, go to comm.unc.edu.
For students interested in mass media, The Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Georgia's main campus in Athens, Georgia, offers seven majors, including advertising, broadcast news, newspapers, magazines, public relations, publication management and telecommunication arts. With more than a half dozen student organizations housed in the college, students are encouraged to pursue co-curricular activities that place an emphasis on putting theory into practice. For more information, see grady.uga.edu.
The Florida State University's School of Communication, located in the University Center complex on the main campus in Tallahassee, offers four majors and a minor in Hispanic marketing communication. Students can apply to participate in the "Communication in London" program, which runs the first six weeks of every summer term. Students may also pursue a professional communication major at the university's campus in Panama City. For more information, visit comm.cci.fsu.edu.
West Coast
The Annenberg School of Communication at the University of California Los Angeles hosts the School of Communication and the School of Journalism. More than 80 full-time faculty teach an expansive catalog of courses and are often called upon as media commentators about contemporary issues. The school offers degrees in communication, journalism and public relations. For more information, see annenberg.usc.edu.
Vanguard University of Southern California's Communication Department offers students two majors: communication studies and cinema/digital media. Vanguard's location in Costa Mesa, California, makes it an ideal spot for those interested in cinema/digital media studies. It is a member of the Los Angeles Film Studies Center, which allows students to gain academic credit while working as interns in the film industry. For more information, see vanguard.edu/communication.
Monday, August 9, 2010
Future of Media Education?
Dear Friends:
With the mushrooming of Media institutes in every nook and corner of our society now-a-days, I wonder what will be the future of Media Education in years to come? Will there be a saturation soon? With the commercialisation of media education in a big way, Should we expect the thousands of fresh passouts every year, to hold the high moral ground in their profession?
Please give your heartfelt and logical comments.
Nikhil
With the mushrooming of Media institutes in every nook and corner of our society now-a-days, I wonder what will be the future of Media Education in years to come? Will there be a saturation soon? With the commercialisation of media education in a big way, Should we expect the thousands of fresh passouts every year, to hold the high moral ground in their profession?
Please give your heartfelt and logical comments.
Nikhil
Sunday, January 24, 2010
Should cameraman capture cop dying or go to help him?
In an exercise among Mass Communication students of Lingaya’s Lalita Devi Institute of Management & Sciences, Mandi to express their views (50 words) on the filming of dying sub-inspector (44-year old Vetrivel) of Tamil Nadu on Jan 9, 2010 after he was brutally attacked by a gang in Tirunelveli District; one of the students write:
What I think is that the cameraman did his job. As a journalist he did his duty by showing the reality. The negligence was from the ministers’ side. When these cops risk their lives just for the sake of ministers’ security, it is the duty of ministers to do the same. They could call for an ambulance in time or could have taken the cop in one of the cars.
Aaron Jacob
IInd Semester, BJ(MC)
LLDIMS
What I think is that the cameraman did his job. As a journalist he did his duty by showing the reality. The negligence was from the ministers’ side. When these cops risk their lives just for the sake of ministers’ security, it is the duty of ministers to do the same. They could call for an ambulance in time or could have taken the cop in one of the cars.
Aaron Jacob
IInd Semester, BJ(MC)
LLDIMS
Tuesday, December 1, 2009
Important terms used in media research
Research: The term research comes from the French word recercher, which means to investigate something thoroughly. This can be simply put as an attempt to discover something.
Empirical: Provable or verifiable by experience or experiment.
Cumulative: Which grows by successive additions.
Exploratory research: Exploratory research attempts to get better understanding of different dimensions of the problem.
Descriptive research: The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
Explanatory research: This research explains the causes of social phenomena.
Pure and Applied research: Pure research, also called basic research, is concerned with quest for knowledge.
Applied research is concerned with search for ways of using scientific knowledge to solve practical problems.
Experimental and evaluation research: Experimental research involves both manipulation and observation. In the simplest form of an experiment, researches manipulate the independent variable and then observe the responses of subjects on the dependent variable.
Evaluation research is a study measuring the effectiveness of an action program.
Qualitative and quantitative research:
Example: What % of women leading unhappy marital life take initiative to divorce their husband? What was the cost of poll violence (in crores) in Lok Sabha elections in last 5 elections in
Qualitative research on the other hand is concerned with qualitative phenomenon i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. It describes reality as experienced by the groups, communities, individuals etc.
Longitudinal and One-time research: This involves the study of the problem over a period of time.
Field testing or laboratory research: Is so called depending upon the environment it is carried out.
Historical research: Is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time.
Conclusion-oriented and decision oriented research:
Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research to his own inclinations.
Hypothesis: A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables. It is a tentative explanation of the research problem or a guess about the research outcome which can be empirically verified.
Working hypotheses: Working hypotheses is a preliminary assumption of the researcher about the research topic and a step towards formulating the final research hypothesis.
Research hypothesis: Is a researcher’s proposition about some social fact which he believes that it is true and wants that it should be disproved.
Null hypothesis: Is reverse of research hypothesis. It is a hypothesis of no relationship. Null hypothesis do not exist in reality but are used to test research hypotheses.
Alternative hypothesis: Is a set of two hypotheses (research and null) which states the opposite of the null hypothesis.
Alternative hypothesis is usually the one which one wishes to prove and the null hypothesis is the one which one wishes to disprove. Thus, a null hypothesis represents the hypothesis we are trying to reject, and alternative hypothesis represents all other possibilities.
Scientific hypothesis: Contains statement based on or derived from sufficient theoretical and empirical data.
Research design: Is the detailed strategy to conduct a research.
One cell design: When the data collected in a single situations (S1) pertaining to single time period (T1).
Two cell design/longitudinal: When the data collected pertaining to one situation (or issue) in two time periods (T1).
Panel design: If the study covers two situations at two times.
Sampling: It is the process of obtaining information about an entire population by examining only a part of it.
Take a research project: Awareness of rights among women in rural areas.
Suppose, the study is being conducted in one village which is situated at a distance of 15 kms from the nearest city. It is decided to confine the study to married and unmarried women and widows belonging to the age group of 18-50 years.
The total population of the village is 4800 of whom 2,200 are females and 2,600 are males. Of the total females, 834 (38%) belong to 0-18 age group, 970 (44%) to 18-50 age group and 396 (18%) to 50+age group. Of the 970 women in 18-50 age group, 74 are widows, 87 are unmarried and 809 are married. Age is the main variable of stratifying them in groups while educational level, religion, caste, family structure, family income, and occupation of the head of the family are the variables chosen for analysis purposes.
Population: The class, the families living the city or electorates from which you select a few students, families, electors to question in order to find answers to your research questions are called the population or study population and are usually denoted by the letter (N). Here, the population: 2,200 women.
Target population: Is one to which the researcher would like to generalize his results. Here, 970 women (married, unmarried and widows) in the age group of 18-50 years.
Sample: It is a representative portion of total population. Here, it is 300 women. As the sample size can be decided by the formula: N/(1+N e²).
N= Total population. e= 0.05(confidence level). Here, it is = 970/(1+970* 0.0025)=283. Rounding off this figure, we decide to study 300 women.
Sample size: Here, 300 women.
Sampling design or strategy: The way the sample is selected is called sampling design or strategy.
Sample element: Each entity (person, family, group, organisation) from the population about which information is collected is called a sampling element. Here, all the 970 married and unmarried women and widows in 18-50 years age group will be sampling elements or sampling units.
Sampling frame: It is the list of all units/elements from which the sample is drawn. Here, the electoral roll of 970 women of 18-50 years age group.
Saturation point: In a qualitative research, when you reach a stage where no new information is coming from your respondents, this is called saturation point.
Sampling trait: It is the element on the basis of which we take out the sample from the total population. It could be qualitative (attribute) or quantitative (variable) element. Here, the sampling traits are gender (female), age (18-50 years).
Sampling fraction: It is the proportion of total population to be included in the sample = Size of sample/Total population = 300/2200 = About one seventh of the total population.
Biased sample: When the sample is chosen that some elements are more likely to be represented than other elements, it is called biased sample. Here, suppose of the 300 women of 18-50 years age group, we take 250 women of 18-30 years age group (young) and 25 women of 30-40 years (early middle-aged) and 25 women of 40-50 years (late middle-aged), it would be a biased sample tilted heavily towards young women.
Parameters: Characteristics of a population are called parameters. Like, average age of population at some specified time.
Sampling error: It is the difference between total population value and the sampling value. Suppose the average age (statistical) of a population is 20 years. Average age of the sample is 23 years. The sampling error will be 3 years.
Probability sampling: Is one in which every unit of the population has an equal probability of being selected for the sample. This remains the primary method for selecting large, representative samples for social science and business researches.
Simple random: In this sampling the sampling units are selected randomly.
Stratified random: When the population is divided into different strata or sub-groups and sample units are taken in a simple random method from each group. The final sample contains sample units from all these strata.
Systematic (interval): The sampling is obtained by collecting of elements by drawing every nth person from a pre-determined list of persons. It is randomly selecting the first respondent and then every nth person after that. The number ‘n’ is called the sampling interval.
Cluster: This sampling implies dividing population into clusters and drawing random sample either from all clusters or selected clusters.
Multi-stage: In this method, sampling is selected in various stages but only the last sample of subjects is studied.
Non-probability sampling: Mass media researchers frequently use non-probability sampling.
This is the kind of sampling where all sampling units don’t have the equal chance of selection.
Convenience/Available sampling: This is known as accidental or haphazard sampling. This is a collection of readily accessible subjects for study.
Purposive sampling: It is also known as judgmental sampling. It includes subjects or elements selected for specific characteristics or qualities and eliminates those who fail to meet those criteria.
Quota sampling: Subjects are selected to a predetermined or known percentage/quota.
Snowball sampling: In this technique, the researcher begins the research with a few respondents who are known and available to him. Subsequently, the respondents give other names who meet the criteria of research, who in turn give more names.
Volunteer sampling: This is a technique in which the respondents themselves finally volunteer to give information they hold.
Open-ended question: It requires respondents to generate their own answers. It gives the respondents freedom in answering questions and an opportunity to provide in-depth responses.
Closed-ended questions: Are the fixed choice-questions. They require the respondents to choose a response from a set of responses provided by the researcher.
Direct: Direct questions are personal questions which elicit information about the respondent himself/herself.
Example: Do you believe in media censorship?
Indirect: Indirect questions seek information about other people.
Example: Do you think people of your status and age believe in media censorship?
Nominal: When its response falls in two or more categories.
Example: Rich/Poor, Married/Muslim, rural/urban, Shia/Suni and so on.
Ordinal: Questions in which responses are placed in rank and order of categories.
Example:
Relations with class mates: Excellent/satisfactory/dissatisfactory/can’t say
Interval: Questions which contain a range or interval.
Example:
Income per annum: Below 18,000/ 18,000-36,000/36,000-54,000/54,000-72,000/Above 72, 000.
Contingency: A contingency question is one whose relevance to the respondent is determined by his response to an earlier screening question.
Example:
Q1. Are you in favour of using some method in controlling birth?
Q2. Do you prefer vasectomy/condom/pill/safe period?
The second question is a contingency question.
Filter: These questions aim at eliciting information related to a general aspect of the research topics and are usually followed by more specific question.
Example:
Do you smoke?-Filter question.
Do you (being a girl) smoke?-Contingency question.
Primary data: The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character.
Secondary data: The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.
Observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents.
Questionnaires: Are a set of questions mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing the same.
Schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules.
Depth interviews: Depth interviews are those interviews that are designed to discover underlying motives and desires and are often used in motivational research.
Content analysis: Content analysis consists of analyzing the contents of documentary materials such as books, magazines, newspapers and the contents of all other verbal materials which can be either spoken or printed.
Unstructured interview: There are no specifications in the wording of the questions or the order of the questions. The interviewer forms questions as and when required. The structure of the interview is flexible.
Structured interview: Is based on the structured interview-guide which is little different from the questionnaire. It is a set of specific points and definite questions prepared by the interviewer.
Standardized interview: In standardized interviews, answer to each question is standardized as it is determined by a set of response categories given for this purpose. The respondents are expected to choose one of the given options as the answer.
Unstandardized interview: Is one in which the responses are left open to the respondent. This is used mainly in qualitative research.
Individual interview: Where the interviewer interviews only one respondent at a time.
Group interview: More than one respondent are interviewed simultaneously. The group can be small, say, of two individual (e.g., husband and wife, or two co-workers in a factory) or large, say, of 10 to 20 persons (say students in a class).
Self-administered interview: The respondent is supplied a list of questions along with instructions for writing answers in the appropriate place on the interview form.
Other-administered interview: The interviewer himself writes answers to questions on the response sheet.
Unique interview: Is one which the interviewer collects entire information in one interview.
Panel interviews interview: The interviewer collects information from the same group of respondents two or more times at regular intervals. If different respondents are involved in various stages for asking the same question, it is called Trend Study.
Soft interview: Here the interviewer guides the respondents without putting any pressure on them.
Hard interview: Here, the interview resembles a police interrogation. The interviewer questions the validity and completeness of the answers obtained, often warning the respondents not to lie and forcing them to give an answer when they hesitate.
Personal interviews: There is face to face contact between the interviewer and the interviewee.
Non-personal interviews: No face-to-face contact, but the information is collected through telephone, computer or some other medium.
Case study: Is an intensive study of a case which may be an individual, an institution, a system, a community, an organization, an event, or even the entire culture.
Data processing: Mainly involves various manipulations necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of manipulation) could be manual or electronic. It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding, computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
Editing data: Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity. Bringing uniformity to the collected data, checking error and re-arranging.
Coding of data: Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data analysis. Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a computer card. Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook. The code book gives a numerical code for each variable.
Data classification/distribution: Distribution of data as a form of classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a particular variable. There are four types of distributions:
Frequency distribution: In social science research, frequency distribution is very common. It presents the frequency of occurrences of certain categories. This distribution appears in two forms:
Percentage distribution: It is also possible to give frequencies not in absolute numbers but in percentages. For instance instead of saying 200 respondents of total 2000 had a monthly income of less than Rs. 500, we can say 10% of the respondents have a monthly income of less than Rs. 500.
Cumulative distribution: It tells how often the value of the random variable is less than or equal to a particular reference value.
Statistical data distribution: In this type of data distribution, some measure of average is found out of a sample of respondents. Several kind of averages are available (mean, median, mode) and the researcher must decide which is most suitable to his purpose. Once the average has been calculated, the question arises: how representative a figure it is, i.e., how closely the answers are bunched around it. Are most of them very close to it or is there a wide range of variation?
Tabulation of data: After editing, which ensures that the information on the schedule is accurate and categorized in a suitable form, the data are put together in some kinds of tables and may also undergo some other forms of statistical analysis.
Author-date system of referencing: Author-date" (also called "Harvard style", "Harvard referencing", or the "Harvard system"). In the author-date method, the in-text citation is placed in parentheses after the sentence or part thereof that the citation supports, and includes the author's name, year of publication, and a page number where appropriate (Smith 2008, p. 1) or (Smith 2008:1). A full citation is given in the references section:
Smith, John (2008). Playing nicely together.
Author-tile referencing: In the author-title or author-page method, the in-text citation is placed in parentheses after the sentence or part thereof that the citation supports, and includes the author's name (a short title only is necessary when there is more than one work by the same author) and a page number where appropriate (Smith 1) or (Smith, Playing 1). A full citation is given in the references section:
Smith, John. Playing Nicely Together.
Reference by number system: For numbered references, the reference list is ordered in the order of their appearance in the paper: Example: Nothing seemed so certain as the results of the early studies (1). It was precisely this level of apparent certainty, however, which led to a number of subsequent challenges to the techniques used to process the data (2). There were a number of fairly obvious flaws in the data's aspect: consistencies and regularities that seemed most irregular, upon close scrutiny (1,2).
References
1. Smith, J.P. Studying certainty. Science and Culture 9 (1989) 442.
2. Jones, M.R. Cooking the data? Science News 8 (1990) 878.
Data analysis: Is the ordering of data into constituent parts in order to obtain answers to research questions.
Variable: A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. The concepts like weight, height, income are all examples of variables.
Dependent variable: If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of other variable, it is termed a dependable variable.
Example: If we say, height of a child depends on age, ‘height’ is dependent variable and ‘age’ is independent variable.
Independent variable: The variable that is independent of other variable is called independent variable.
Reliability: The ability of an instrument that consistently gives the same result at different times.
Validity: The ability to produce findings that are in agreement with conceptual or theoretical values.
Sunday, November 29, 2009
Introductory pages of a research dissertation
Cover page
Role of Communication to Prevent HIV-AIDS—A Study in Delhi-National Capital Region
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Degree of Bachelor of Journalism and Mass Communication
By
Rohit Sharma
Enrolment No-XXXXXXXXXXXXX
Under the Supervision of
Dr. Kirpal Singh (MJ, Ph.D.)
Department of Journalism and Mass Communication
Lingaya’s Lalita Devi Institute of Management & Sciences
Mandi Road, Mandi, New Delhi-110047
By
Rohit Sharma
Enrolment No-XXXXXXXXXXXXX
Under the Supervision of
Dr. Kirpal Singh (MJ, Ph.D.)
Department of Journalism and Mass Communication
Lingaya’s Lalita Devi Institute of Management & Sciences
Mandi Road, Mandi, New Delhi-110047
Second page
DECLARATION
This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree / diploma.
Signed: ……………………..
Date: ………………………..
Statement 1
This project is being submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for BJ (MC) from GGSIP University.
Signed: ……………………..
Date: ………………………..
Statement 2
This project is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended.
Signed: ……………………..
This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree / diploma.
Signed: ……………………..
Date: ………………………..
Statement 1
This project is being submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for BJ (MC) from GGSIP University.
Signed: ……………………..
Date: ………………………..
Statement 2
This project is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended.
Signed: ……………………..
Date: ………………………
Third page
Third page
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Dissertation title ‘Role of Communication to Prevent HIV-AIDS—A Study in Delhi-National Capital Region’ is bonafide & original research work done by Rohit Sharma, student of LLDIMS, GGSIP University, New Delhi, under my supervision and guidance.
This subject on which this dissertation has been written, is a original contribution towards the discipline of Mass communication and Journalism and it has not previously formed the basis for the award of the Degree, Diploma, Associatedship & fellowship or other similar title to any candidate.
This Dissertation represents entirely an independent research work of the candidate under my guidance.
This is to certify that the Dissertation title ‘Role of Communication to Prevent HIV-AIDS—A Study in Delhi-National Capital Region’ is bonafide & original research work done by Rohit Sharma, student of LLDIMS, GGSIP University, New Delhi, under my supervision and guidance.
This subject on which this dissertation has been written, is a original contribution towards the discipline of Mass communication and Journalism and it has not previously formed the basis for the award of the Degree, Diploma, Associatedship & fellowship or other similar title to any candidate.
This Dissertation represents entirely an independent research work of the candidate under my guidance.
Date -
Place -
Place -
(Dr. Kirpal Sing )
Signature of guide
Signature of guide
Fourth Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project work has been a great experience in assessing the role of communication in help preventing hemophilia. This work would not have been possible without the help, cooperation, constructive suggestion and well wishes of many people. I would like to thank all of them, as I mention a few here.
I owe my profound respect to Dr. Kirpa Singh, my project guide, and Dr. Tirpal Singh of NIHFW, New Delhi, and express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness for their inspirations, valuable and scholarly guidance, imperative suggestions and personal attention at each stage of the Work. Their gamut of knowledge, dedication towards research, exemplary devotion and trust towards me has been unique and is the prime key behind the success of this project.
The personality of Dr. Singh has been instrumental in blending an exciting spirit and atmosphere for research. It has been a great opportunity and experience to work with him, as I will forever cherish the deep interaction I had with him.
This project work has been a great experience in assessing the role of communication in help preventing hemophilia. This work would not have been possible without the help, cooperation, constructive suggestion and well wishes of many people. I would like to thank all of them, as I mention a few here.
I owe my profound respect to Dr. Kirpa Singh, my project guide, and Dr. Tirpal Singh of NIHFW, New Delhi, and express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness for their inspirations, valuable and scholarly guidance, imperative suggestions and personal attention at each stage of the Work. Their gamut of knowledge, dedication towards research, exemplary devotion and trust towards me has been unique and is the prime key behind the success of this project.
The personality of Dr. Singh has been instrumental in blending an exciting spirit and atmosphere for research. It has been a great opportunity and experience to work with him, as I will forever cherish the deep interaction I had with him.
Finally, I am most grateful to my parents and friends for their moral support and blessings and for being an immense source of inspiration for me all through my life.
Rohit Sharma
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